Postmodernism in history emerged as a critical reaction to modernity and its intellectual foundations. Rather than being simply anti-modern, postmodernism developed through sustained engagement with modern ideas, questioning their assumptions and consequences. Since the 1970s, the ‘postmodern turn’ has gained prominence, particularly in the advanced Western world, influencing philosophy, social sciences, and historical writing.

Arnold Joseph Toynbee explained the rise and decline of civilisations through his famous Challenge and Response Theory, developed in his monumental study of world history. Toynbee rejected narrow explanations of historical change based on race, environment, geography, or leadership alone. Instead, he sought a deeper and more dynamic cause behind the success or failure of civilisations.