The latest edition of the European State of the Climate (ESOTC) report highlights climate trends and states that 2024 was not only the hottest year globally but also the warmest on record. However, the continent experience d a noticeable East-West divide in weather patterns—Eastern Europe saw sunny and warm conditions, while Western Europe was cloudier and experienced more rainfall. The report was released on April 15, 2025.
In 2024, the global average temperature exceeded 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels for the first time, making it the warmest year on record. The 1.5 °C target of the Paris Agreement refers to the average temperature exceeding this threshold over a 20-year period. The five-year average now stands at 1.3 °C. The past 10 years have been the hottest ever recorded, with greenhouse gas concentrations—especially carbon dioxide and methane—continuing to rise. Climate change impacts in Europe include severe heatwaves, catastrophic floods from extreme rainfall, and widespread droughts in the south.
The ESOTC report, released annually by the Copernicus Climate Change Service (C3S) under the European Commission, is produced in partnership with the World Meteorological Organization (WMO).
The ESOTC report is the result of collaboration among over hundred scientists and organisations, incorporating extensive satellite data from the Organisation for the Exploitation of Meteorological Satellites (EUMETSAT’s) European programmes. It offers a comprehensive analysis of nearly 40 climate variables, advanced datasets, Earth system variables, extreme weather events and their impacts, as well as insights into climate policy and actions.
Key Insights from the Report
Europe recorded the warmest year, marked by the second-highest number of heat stress days and tropical nights ever observed. Around 85 per cent of the region experienced much-warmer-than-average conditions, with approximately 48 registering record high temperatures, particularly in Eastern, South-eastern, and Central Europe. In contrast, Iceland was the only region to experience cooler-than-average temperature.
Europe’s Accelerating Temperature Rise Europe’s thermal regime has shifted dramatically. With average annual temperatures now 2.4 °C higher than in pre-industrial times, this significant warming has led to a surge in extreme weather events, such as heatwaves, intense rainfall, and widespread flooding. Approximately, 69 per cent of Europe recorded fewer than 90 frost days—the lowest extent of sub-zero conditions on record. Cold stress days also declined to their lowest levels. Simultaneously, sea surface temperatures in both the European and Mediterranean regions reached unprecedented highs, contributing to record warming in European lakes.
Glaciers, Lakes, and Artic Conditions In 2024, the Arctic experienced its third warmest year overall and its fourth warmest year for land areas. Wildfire carbon emissions north of the Arctic Circle were the third highest in the 22-year satellite record. Sea surface and sea ice temperatures in this region, also ranked as the third warmest on record. The Norwegian and Barents seas recorded unprecedented sea and sea ice temperatures exceeding +5 °C in August and September. Additionally, Hudson Bay experienced a record late freeze-up, with sea ice formation delayed well into December, 2024.
The warming in Svalbard is particularly alarming. This Arctic archipelago, situated between the Arctic Ocean, Barents Sea, Greenland Sea, and Norwegian Sea, experienced summer temperatures in 2024 that exceeded the 2023 record by approximately 1 °C—a significant jump. It marked the third consecutive year of record-warm summers for the region. In 2023, the average summer temperature in Svalbard was 1.7 °C that reached a new record high at 2.6 °C.
Glaciers in Scandinavia and Svalbard underwent their greatest annual mass loss on record, the highest among all glacier regions, worldwide. In 2024, glaciers contributed 1.2 millimetres to sea level rise.
The United Nations has declared 2025 as the International Year of Glacier’s Preservation, alongside the annual observance of March 21 as the World Day for Glaciers starting in 2025. This initiative aims to raise global awareness of vital role of glaciers, snow, and ice in the climate system and hydrological cycle, while addressing the economic, social, and environmental impacts of changes in Earth’s cryosphere.
Arctic Amplification in Action Since the 1980s, Europe has warmed twice as fast as global average, driven by factors like its Artic landmass which is the fastest warming region on Earth, especially near the North Pole and changes in atmospheric circulation that in turn favours more summer heatwaves.
The heightened Arctic warming is primarily due to the Albedo effect (darker exposed surfaces absorbing more light). As Arctic ice melts, it exposes more land and water to sunlight. Unlike ice, which reflects most solar radiation, darker surfaces like land and water absorb more heat, accelerating the warming process which in turn disrupts mid-latitude weather patterns, with direct implications for Europe. Since Antarctica is experiencing less ice melt, its warming has been less intense compared to the Arctic.
Did You Know?
Albedo is the measure of a surface’s ability to reflect sunlight.
Western Europe experienced one of its 10 wettest years with frequent cloud cover and above average rainfall, and the continent faced its most extensive flooding since 2013.
Southeastern Europe experienced below-average rainfall and its driest summer in the 12-year history of the drought index, with river flows during summer being significantly or exceptionally low. In fact, the summer Universal Thermal Climate Index (UTCI) for south eastern Europe was 3.3 °C above average, with 66 days of strong heat stress and a record 23 tropical nights.
The UTCI measures the effect of the environment on people, accounting for temperature, humidity, wind, sunshine, and radiation. It reflects how the body responds to thermal environments and is expressed as a ‘feels like’ or apparent temperature, divided into ten thermal stress categories.
The frequency of heat stress days and tropical nights is on the rise in the region, along with growing year-to-year variability in summer wet days.
The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change warns that a global temperature rise of 1.5 °C could lead to 30,000 heat-related deaths annually in Europe, with southeastern Europe facing the highest and most rapidly increasing toll. In a scenario, where global temperatures rise by 3 °C, this figure is expected to triple. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), heat-related deaths have already surged by over 30 per cent in the last 20 years.
Southeastern Europe, including countries, such as Bulgaria, Romania, Croatia, Kosovo, and Serbia, further faced its longest recorded heatwave. In 2024, 43 out of 97 summer days (June to early September) in Southeastern Europe were classified as heatwave days. The longest single heatwave lasted for 13 days.
Urban Vulnerabilities and Heat Islands Densely populated urban areas are significant contributors to environmental degradation. The urban heat island effect, where surface temperatures in dense cities can be 10–15 °C higher than surrounding rural area, intensified human discomfort and elevated energy demand. However, they further play a leading role in addressing climate change, with approximately 70 per cent of mitigation and 90 per cent of adaptation efforts occurring in European cities.
Climate change is expected to increase damage to the built environment from extreme weather by up to 10 times by the end of the century. The European Climate Risk Assessment in 2024, identified that 34 out of 36 major climate risks could reach critical or catastrophic levels this century if warming continues. This risk is intensified by aging infrastructure and growing demand, with flooding identified as the most pressing climate threat.
Energy Trends and Renewable Generation The share of electricity generated from renewable sources in Europe reached a new high in 2024, accounting for 45 per cent of total generation. This comprised 18 per cent from wind, 18 per cent from hydropower, and 9 per cent from solar PV. Despite climate variability, solar electricity generation increased due to expanded PV capacity, even though 2024 was a “dark year” with below-average solar radiation in western and Northern Europe.
Wildfires and Drought In 2024, Europe faced severe drought and heightened wildfire activity, especially in Mediterranean and Southeastern regions. Prolonged heat, low soil moisture, and reduced river flows—obscured in 35 per cent of monitored rivers—created ideal conditions for fire spread.
Southeastern Europe recorded 11 of 13 major wildfires experiencing its driest summers in 12 years. Portugal saw the largest fire, burning over 110,000 hectares (25 per cent of Europe’s annual burnt area), while nearly 11,000 hectares were scorched near Athens.
Escalating Human and Economic Losses from Climate Extremes In 2024, the magnitude of climate-related human and economic impacts reached a critical threshold. More than 413,000 individuals were directly affected by European floods and storms, and at least 335 fatalities were recorded.
The economic toll exceeded 18 billion euros, with 85 per cent of losses attributed to flooding events alone.
Notably, September’s storm Boris affected eight countries across Central and Eastern Europe. While an unprecedented 771.8 mm of rainfall with 24 hours in Valencia region of Spain resulted in 230 deaths. It is one of the deadliest single-day rainfall ever recorded in Europe.
Decline in Atmospheric Aerosol Levels According to the ESOTC 2024 report, one reason for the faster warming in Europe is the decline in aerosol emissions.
While this points to improved air quality and reduced pollution—a positive development for public health—it has downside in terms of climate. Aerosols are tiny particles suspended in the atmosphere that plays a crucial role in modulating climate by reflecting sunlight back into space (direct effect) and enhancing cloud reflectivity and longevity (indirect effect). They mostly originate from pollutants.
With Europe having relatively cleaner air and lower aerosol emissions, less sunlight is being deflected, contributing to increased warming. These include shifts in atmospheric circulation that lead to more frequent summer heatwaves, elevated sea surface temperatures around the continent, the urban heat island effect, and glacier melt. Warming patterns are uneven across the globe. Land areas are heating up faster than oceans and higher-latitude regions are warming more rapidly than tropical ones. For example, India has warmed by about 0.7 °C since pre-industrial times, much less than the global land average of 1.59 °C, based on data from a few years ago, which may have shifted slightly in recent years.
Adaptation Strategies and Policy Frameworks European cities continue to lead climate adaptation efforts, with over 4,500 municipalities having joined the Covenant of Mayors for Climate and Energy. As of 2024, 51 per cent of cities have adopted formal adaptation plans, implementing a mix of physical and technological measures (35.4 per cent), nature-based solutions (26.6 per cent), governance approaches (20.3 per cent), and knowledge-based actions (14.3 per cent). Notably, nature-based solutions are integrated into 91 per cent of local climate action strategies. These local efforts are supported by a broader institutional framework, including the European Climate Law (2021), which targets net-zero emissions by 2050, and the EU Adaptation Strategy (2021), aimed at faster and more effective adaptation. Additional initiatives such as the European Green Deal (2019), the Urban Agenda (2016), and the Missions on Adaptation and Climate-Neutral Cities (2022) further strengthen Europe’s climate governance. These are complemented by the Copernicus Services, which provide open-access climate data to support evidence-based planning and policy-making.
Conclusion
To conclude, 2024 was the warmest year for Europe, though there was a striking climate contrast between Eastern and Western Europe. During 2024, record-high temperatures, glacier mass loss, impacts of severe weather events on human populations and environment were recorded. The report underscores the urgency of climate adaptation and mitigation efforts in order to address the rising effects of climate change in Europe.
The ESOTC 2024 underscores the urgent need for accelerated and coordinated action. A climate-resilient Europe requires integrated governance, sustained funding, enhanced public engagement, and climate-informed urban planning.
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