Climate change is one of the most formidable development challenges faced by humanity today. Its consequences are global and intergenerational. It refers to long-term shifts in temperatures and weather patterns. Such shifts can be natural, due to changes in the Sun’s activity or large volcanic eruptions. But, since the industrial revolution, human activities, primarily due to the burning of fossil fuels like coal, oil, and gas, have been the primary contributors to climate change. Studies indicate that human activities since 1750 have significantly increased global atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide (CO2), methane, and nitrous oxide, which are the most significant greenhouse gases (GHGs), far exceeding preindustrial levels. Global warming is a specific example of the broader term ‘climate change’ and refers to the observed increase in the average temperature of the air near the Earth’s surface and oceans in recent decades.
The rate of climate change is rapidly accelerating compared to previously anticipated due to the increase in GHG emissions. The impacts of the climate change can be severe, involving the occurrence of extreme weather events and rising sea levels. If left unchecked, climate change will undo a lot of the development progress made over the past years. It will likely lead to mass migrations, potentially resulting in global instability and wars.
Therefore, in order to limit the increasing GHG emissions and global warming, and to address the problem of climate change, various global efforts have been made so far.
Impact of Climate Change
Increased frequency and intensity of extreme weather events According to the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), a 1.1-degree Celsius increase in global temperatures has resulted in more frequent and severe extreme weather events, including heatwaves, droughts, floods, winter storms, hurricanes, and wildfires. The World Meteorological Organization (WMO) notes that 2019 marked the conclusion of a decade characterised by exceptional global heat, retreating ice, and record sea levels driven by human-induced GHG emissions.
Rising global temperatures and heatwaves The WMO reported that the global average temperature in 2019 was 1.1 degrees Celsius above pre-industrial levels, with the five-year (2015–19) and ten-year (2010–19) periods being the hottest on record. Approximately 30 per cent of the world’s population is exposed to deadly heatwaves for more than 20 days each year, leading to significant health risks.
Impact on food security and livelihoods Climate change is jeopardising food security globally. The IPCC estimates that climate change will drive 32–132 million more people into extreme poverty over the next decade, with agricultural yields declining due to extreme weather conditions. The combination of heat and drought can lead to sudden and significant losses in agricultural productivity, exacerbating food insecurity, and increasing food prices.
Water insecurity and ecosystem disruption Half of the global population experiences water insecurity at least one month per year, with severe droughts and floods threatening access to clean water. Wildfires are becoming more prevalent, leading to irreversible changes in landscapes and ecosystems. Species extinction is also a concern, with animals like the golden toad and Bramble Cays Melomys rat already lost due to climate impacts.
Health risks and disease spread Higher temperatures facilitate the spread of vector-borne diseases such as West Nile virus, Lyme disease, and malaria as well as waterborne diseases like cholera. The IPCC highlights that climate change will increase the incidence of heat-related mortality, heart disease, and mental health challenges.
Economic impacts and inequality The economic consequences of climate change are expected to be negative overall, with projected global losses between 1 per cent and 5 per cent of GDP for a 4 °C increase in temperature. Vulnerable populations, particularly in developing nations, face heightened risks due to existing inequalities, with mortality from climate-related disasters being significantly higher in these regions.
Future vulnerability and development pathways Future vulnerability to climate change impacts depends not only on climate change itself but also on socio-economic development pathways. The IPCC emphasises that development can significantly influence a community’s ability to adapt to climate risks, with poorer nations facing greater challenges in resilience and recovery.
Projected emissions and climate commitments Despite current commitments, GHG emissions reached a new high of 59.1 gigatonnes of CO2 equivalent in 2019, and projections indicate that emissions could rebound to 60 GtCO2e if high-carbon activities resume post-pandemic. This trajectory suggests that without immediate and ambitious action, the world is on track for a temperature increase of approximately 2.0 °C by 2100, with severe implications for ecosystems and human societies.
Escalating Impacts of Climate Change: Some Events
- In May 2024, Venezuela became the first country in modern times to lose all its glaciers, with the Humboldt Glacier shrinking to the point of being reclassified as an ice field.
- A study published in May 2024 revealed that seawater rushing beneath the Thwaites Glacier in Antarctica makes it more susceptible to melting, increasing projections of ice mass loss.
- The ongoing rise in global temperatures has led to more frequent and severe weather events, including heatwaves, droughts, and floods, significantly impacting agricultural productivity and food security.
- In April 2024, ocean and air temperatures reached record levels, marking a year-long period of unprecedented warming.
- Projections indicate that up to 90 per cent of coral reefs could be lost under current warming scenarios, severely affecting marine biodiversity and fisheries.
- Studies forecast that the Arctic could experience summers without sea ice at least once per century, with significant thawing of permafrost expected by the end of the century.
- Climate change is projected to cause substantial economic losses, with estimates suggesting up to US$ 38 trillion in damages annually by 2050 if current trends continue.
Global Efforts to Mitigate Climate Change
The global efforts include institutionalisation of various international and regional bodies, conferences, conventions, treaties, and agreements.
Some of them are given below:
The United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), established in 1966, plays a crucial role in assisting countries with their climate change mitigation efforts, guiding them towards sustainable, low-carbon, and climate-resilient development. This support aligns with achieving the sustainable development goals (SDGs), particularly those related to affordable and clean energy (SDG7), sustainable cities and communities (SDG11), and climate action (SDG13).
For climate change mitigation, UNDP—
- works with countries to create enabling policy environments for climate action, including the development of laws, regulations, and standards that promote sustainable practices.
- provides training and technical assistance to strengthen the capacity of government institutions, civil society, and the private sector to implement and scale up mitigation solutions.
- facilitates the sharing of best practices, lessons learned, and innovative approaches to climate change mitigation across countries and regions.
- helps countries access funding from sources such as the Global Environment Facility and the Green Climate Fund to pilot and scale up mitigation solutions.
- has an active portfolio of 94 climate change mitigation projects in 69 countries. These initiatives not only aim to reduce GHG emissions but also contribute to sustainable and resilient development pathways by promoting renewable energy projects, energy efficiency initiatives, and sustainable land-use practices.
Thus, by providing comprehensive support for climate change mitigation, UNDP is working to ensure that countries can achieve their emissions reduction targets and build a sustainable future for all.
First world conference on the environment (1972) The 1972 United Nations Conference on the Human Environment in Stockholm marked the first global event to significantly address environmental concerns. The participants adopted a series of principles for sound management of the environment including the Stockholm Declaration and Action Plan for the Human Environment and several resolutions. The Stockholm Declaration, consisting of 26 principles, emphasised the importance of environmental issues in international discussions. The action plan consisted of three main categories: (i) Global Environmental Assessment Programme (watch plan); (ii) environmental management activities; and (iii) international measures to support these activities at the national and international levels. The conference resulted in the establishment of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in June 1972 in Kenya.
First international climate programme (1980) The World Climate Research Programme (WCRP) was established in 1980 in Paris by the WMO in Geneva and the International Science Council (ISC) (called International Council of Scientific Unions until July 2018). The programme enabled climate scientists to monitor, simulate, and project global climate with unprecedented accuracy, providing climate information for governance, decision-making, and practical end-user applications.
Creation of the IPCC (1988) Climate science has evolved significantly since the 1970s, bolstered by advancements in numerical modelling and satellite imaging. But the understanding of climate change causes, challenges, and consequences necessitates the sharing of scientific knowledge across borders. This led to the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in November 1988 by the WMO and UNEP. The objective of the IPCC is to provide governments with scientific information at all levels to enable them develop climate policies.
Rio Earth Summit (1992) The United Nations Conference on Environment and Development (UNCED), also known as the Earth Summit, took place in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, from June 3 to June 14, 1992. The global conference, held on the occasion of the 20th anniversary of the first human environment conference in Stockholm, in 1972. This 1992 global conference brought together political leaders, diplomats, scientists, representatives of the media, and non-governmental organisations (NGOs) from 179 countries for a massive effort to focus on the impact of human socio-economic activities on the environment.
One of the major outcomes of the UNCED was Agenda 21, which outlines new strategies for investing in the future for sustainable development in the 21st century.
The ‘Earth Summit’ had many great achievements such as the Rio Declaration and its 27 universal principles, the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC), the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), and the Declaration on the principles of forest management. The summit also led to the creation of the Commission on Sustainable Development.
The concept of sustainable development received its first major international recognition in 1972 at the UN Conference on the Human Environment held in Stockholm. The term was not referred to explicitly; nevertheless, the international community agreed to the notion—now fundamental to sustainable development—that both development and the environment, hitherto addressed as separate issues, could be managed in a mutually beneficial way.
The term was popularised 15 years later in 1987 in the Brundtland Commission’s report (earlier known as the World Commission on Environment and Development), Our Common Future, providing the ‘classic’ definition of sustainable development: “development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs”.
It was not until the Rio Summit, however, that major world leaders recognised sustainable development as the major challenge it remains today. The concept of sustainable development formed the basis of the UNCED held in Rio de Janeiro in 1992. The summit marked the first international effort to develop action plans and strategies for sustainable development.
Key works that highlighted sustainable development thinking included Rachel Carson’s Silent Spring (1962), Garret Hardin’s Tragedy of the Commons (1968), A Blueprint for Survival by Edward Goldsmith The Ecologist magazine (1972), and the Club of Rome’s The Limits to Growth report (1972).
Kyoto Protocol (1997) The Kyoto Protocol, adopted in Kyoto, Japan, on December 11, 1997, and entered into force on February 16, 2005, is an international agreement based on the UNFCCC, which commits its parties by setting internationally binding emission reduction targets. During its first commitment period (2008–12), 37 industrialised countries and the European Community committed to reduce GHG emissions by an average of five percent from 1990 levels. During the second commitment period (2013–20), all parties committed to reduce GHG emissions by at least 18 per cent below the 1990 levels. The protocol mandates countries to meet their targets through national measures and offers additional methods through three market-based mechanisms: International Emissions Trading (IET), Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), and Joint Implementation (JI). The mechanisms facilitate green investment and assist parties in achieving their emission targets in a cost-effective way.
Millennium Summit (2000) The Millennium Summit, held from September 6–8, 2000, was the largest gathering of heads of state and government at the United Nations Headquarters in New York at that time. The 189 member states adopted the Millennium Declaration, outlining the eight Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). The eight MDGs are:
- eradicate extreme poverty and hunger;
- achieve universal primary education;
- promote gender equality and empower women;
- reduce child mortality;
- improve maternal health;
- combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases;
- ensure environmental sustainability; and
- develop a global partnership for development.
World Summit on Sustainable Development (2002) The 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development took place in Johannesburg, South Africa, from August 26 – September 4, 2002, and adopted a Political Declaration and a Plan of Implementation. It included provisions covering a set of activities and measures to be taken in order to achieve development that takes into account respect for the environment.
European Union Emission Trading System (EU ETS) (2005) The system makes polluters pay for their GHG emissions; helps bring emissions down; and generates revenues to finance the EU’s green transition. It operates in all EU countries plus Iceland, Liechtenstein, and Norway (three states which come under the European Economic Area (EEA) and the European Free Trade Association (EFTA). The EU ETS operates on the ‘cap and trade’ principle, limiting GHG emissions from installations and aircraft operators. The cap is reduced annually to align with the EU’s climate target, ensuring emissions decrease over time. Since 2005, the ETS has reduced power and industry plant emissions by 37 per cent.
The Bali Road Map (2007) The Bali Road Map, adopted at the 13th Conference of the Parties (COP13) and the 3rd Meeting of the Parties in December 2007, includes: the Bali Action Plan which is a comprehensive process to enable the full, effective, and sustained implementation of the UNFCCC through long-term cooperative action, up to and beyond 2012, in order to reach an agreed outcome and adopt a decision. The action plan is categorised into five main areas: shared vision, mitigation, adaptation, technology, and financing.
Copenhagen Climate Change Conference (2009) The Copenhagen Accord was adopted in December 2009 during the 15th session of the COP and the 5th session of the Kyoto Protocol Meeting in Copenhagen, Denmark. The long-term goal of the accord is to limit maximum global average temperature increase to no more than 2° Celsius above pre-industrial levels, subject to a review in 2015. A reference to consider limiting the temperature increase to below 1.5 degrees is a key demand made by vulnerable developing countries. However, the participants were unable to reach a binding agreement on GHG emissions reduction targets to keep global warming below this threshold.
Cancun Climate Change Conference and Green Climate Fund (2010) At the 16th Conference of the Parties (COP16), the Cancun Agreements were agreed on December 11, 2010, in Cancun, Mexico. The agreements represented key steps forward in capturing plans to reduce GHG emissions and to help developing nations protect themselves from climate impacts and build their own sustainable futures. The main objective included mitigation, transparency of action, technology, adaptation, forests, capacity building, and finance. Another major outcome of the conference was setting up of the Green Climate Fund, which aimed to provide US$ 100 billion annually by 2020 to developing nations to assist them in mitigating climate change and adapting to its impacts.
The Durban Outcomes (2011) The 17th COP took place in November 2011, in Durban, South Africa, which marked a significant milestone in the international community’s response to climate change. One of the major outcomes of the conference was the launch of a new platform for negotiations under the UNFCCC to deliver a new and universal GHG reduction protocol, legal instrument or other outcome with legal force by 2015 for the period beyond 2020.
The Doha Climate Gateway (2012) In December 2012, governments at the 18th COP in Doha, Qatar, consolidated the achievements of the last three years of international climate change negotiations and opened a gateway to necessary greater ambition and action on all levels. The COP emphasised their commitment to adopt a Universal Climate Agreement by 2015, which will take effect in 2020. Another outcome was launching of a new commitment period under the Kyoto Protocol.
Warsaw Outcomes (2013) The 19th COP and the 9th Meeting of the Parties to Kyoto Protocol took place in Warsaw, Poland, from November 11–23, 2013. At the conference, the decision was made to initiate or intensify domestic preparations for their intended nationally determined contributions (INDCs) towards the 2015 Agreement. The “Warsaw International Mechanism for Loss and Damage” was established with a provision for setting up of an international mechanism to offer technical support, finance, and capacity building to help the poorer and vulnerable countries. The Warsaw Framework for Reducing Emission from Deforestation and Degradation (REDD+) is supported by US$ 280 million financing from the US, Norway, and the UK.
Lima Call for Climate Action (2014) The 20th COP and the 10th Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol took place in Lima, Peru, from December 1–14, 2014. The Lima Call for Climate Action urged developed countries to provide increased financial support to developing countries for ambitious mitigation and adaptation actions, particularly those vulnerable to climate change’s adverse effects, and acknowledges the complementary support from other parties. Member countries agreed on ground rules on how all the countries can submit contributions to the new agreement during the first quarter of 2015.
Paris Agreement (2015) The 21st COP and the 11th Meeting of the Parties to the Kyoto Protocol were held in Paris, France, from November 30 to December 12, 2015. One of the major outcomes of the conference was the Paris Agreement, a legally binding international treaty on climate change. The agreement was adopted by 196 Parties at the UNFCCC and entered into force on November 4, 2016. The agreement’s overarching goal was to hold “the increase in the global average temperature to well below 2 °C above pre-industrial levels” and pursue efforts “to limit the temperature increase to 1.5 °C above pre-industrial levels.” The agreement works on a five-year cycle of increasingly ambitious climate action carried out by countries. Since 2020, countries have been submitting their national climate action plans, known as NDCs. The agreement also encouraged countries to develop and submit long-term low GHG emission development strategies (LT-LEDS) to achieve the long-term goal of reducing greenhouse gas emissions and underlines the need for net zero. Overall, the agreement is a landmark in the multilateral climate change process because, for the first time, a binding agreement brings all nations together to combat climate change and adapt to its effects.
What is Net Zero?
Net zero refers to a state where the GHGs emitted into the atmosphere are balanced by the amount removed, effectively resulting in no net increase in atmospheric greenhouse gases. Achieving net zero is crucial for halting global warming, particularly for CO2, as it marks the point where global temperatures stabilise.
To achieve net zero, countries and organisations must reduce GHG emissions and offset any remaining emissions through equivalent removals, such as carbon sinks like forests and oceans. The Paris Agreement highlights the necessity of reaching net zero by balancing anthropogenic emissions and removals in the second half of the century to limit global temperature rise. For net zero to be effective, GHGs removal must be permanent, ensuring that sequestered carbon does not re-enter the atmosphere. While ‘net zero’ includes all GHGs, ‘carbon neutral’ typically refers only to CO2, emphasising the importance of clarity in emissions’ accounting. The IPCC has determined that achieving net zero CO2 emissions by 2050 is essential to limit global warming to 1.5 °C. However, reaching this goal will require significant emissions reductions across all sectors, increased investment in renewable energy, and the scaling up of carbon removal technologies, with many entities setting net zero targets as part of their climate commitments.
Net zero calculations include three scopes of emissions:
Scope 1 Direct emissions from owned or controlled sources;
Scope 2 Indirect emissions from the generation of purchased electricity, steam, heating, and cooling;
Scope 3 Other indirect emissions that occur in a company’s value chain, including those from suppliers and product use.
European Green Deal (2019) The European Green Deal, adopted in December 2019, by the European Council primarily aims to achieve carbon neutrality by 2050, ensuring the European Union (EU) does not emit more GHGs than it can absorb. It aims to reduce net GHG emissions by 55 per cent by 2030 compared to the 1990 levels and plant 3 billion additional trees in the EU by 2030.
China’s Climate Action Plan (2020) Following the announcement of the European Green Deal, China in 2020, pledged to peak its carbon emissions before 2030 and achieve carbon neutrality by 2060. The country is investing heavily in renewable energy, electric vehicles, and reforestation projects. Additionally, China has implemented strict regulations to reduce air pollution and promote energy efficiency.
COP-28 (2023) The 28th Session of the UNFCCC, (COP28) was held between November 30 and December 12, 2023. It was held in Dubai, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and attended by the representatives of about 200 countries. They negotiated on global goals for tackling climate change, presenting their individual countries’ plans in achieving those goals and reporting the progress. The conference took some key resolutions on fossil fuels, methane emissions, funds to fight global warming, among others. It marked the conclusion of the first ‘global stocktake’ of the world’s efforts to address climate change under the Paris Agreement.
Status of Progress
The first global stocktake report, released in September 2023, warned that “the world is not on track to meet the long-term goals of the Paris Agreement.” However, countries have made some notable progress.
Establishment of the Loss and Damage Fund At COP27 in Sharm el-Sheikh, Egypt, the participating countries made a landmark commitment to establishing the Loss and Damage Fund. This fund aims to provide financial assistance to poorer countries that are most vulnerable to climate disasters, despite often being least responsible for global emissions. At COP28, it was decided that the fund will be initially housed at the World Bank, with several wealthy countries pledging around US$ 430 million combined. The UAE also pledged US$ 100 million, which may encourage other high-emitting countries to increase their climate action funding.
Efforts to cut methane emissions Methane (CH4) accounts for more than half of human-made warming today due to its higher potency and heat-trapping ability within the first few decades of release. At COP26, the United States (US) and the EU introduced the Global Methane Pledge, which aims to slash 30 per cent of methane emissions levels from 2020 to 2030. At COP28, oil companies announced they would cut their methane emissions from wells and drilling by more than 80 per cent by the end of the decade, with international monitoring efforts to hold companies accountable. The US also committed to reducing methane emissions from the oil and gas industry by nearly 80 per cent over the next fifteen years.
Despite these efforts, the first global stocktake report highlighted that more needs to be done to meet the Paris Agreement’s long-term goals. Continued international cooperation and increased ambition will be crucial in the years ahead.
Climate Change and India
The major environmental challenges in India have significantly increased over the past two decades. India is among the world’s top annual emitters of GHGs, along with China and the US. Climate change is causing significant adverse effects on India’s natural ecosystems, primarily affecting agriculture, water storage in Himalayan glaciers, which are the source of major rivers and groundwater recharge, sea-level rise, and threats to a long coastline and habitations. It is also increasing the frequency of extreme events like floods, heatwaves, and droughts. As far as GHG emissions are concerned, India’s per capita CO2 emissions increased from 0.8 to 1.7 metric tonnes from 1990 to 2010 but remained below the world average of 4.9 metric tonnes in 2010. India’s per capita GHG emissions are estimated to be 3.5 tonnes of CO2 equivalent in 2030. Between 1990 and 2011, India significantly reduced its CO2 emissions per unit of the gross domestic product (GDP) by 20 per cent.
In pursuance of the reporting obligations under parties to the UNFCCC, India submitted the Second National Communication (NATCOM) to the UNFCCC in 2012, addressing the implementation of the convention, considering regional and national development priorities, objectives, and circumstances.
India’s Efforts to Address the Climate Change
India’s strategy for addressing climate change is reflected in many of its social and economic development programmes. For instance, the government had a domestic mitigation goal of reducing emissions intensity of GDP by 20–25 per cent by 2020 in comparison with the 2005 level. India’s Twelfth Five-Year Plan, spanning 2012-17, aimed for faster, more inclusive, and sustainable growth. The Indian government has set ambitious targets for renewable energy capacity, aiming for 450 GW by 2030. The International Solar Alliance (ISA), launched by India and France, promotes solar energy adoption worldwide. India is also focusing on enhancing energy efficiency, increasing forest cover and promoting sustainable agriculture.
Besides, many programmes and action plans related to climate change have been implemented or are under progress.
Some of them are given below:
Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change The Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change (PMCCC), initially established in June 2007, was reconstituted by the government on November 3, 2014. The council’s functions include developing a national-level coordinated response to climate change issues, supervising action plan formulation for assessment, adaptation and mitigation of climate change, and periodically monitoring key policy decisions.
National Action Plan on Climate Change Recognising the challenges of climate change, the Indian government released the National Action Plan on Climate Change (NAPCC) on June 30, 2008, outlining current and future policies and programmes for climate mitigation and adaptation. The plan identifies eight core ‘National Missions’ namely, (i) National Solar Mission; (ii) National Mission for Enhanced Energy Efficiency; (iii) National Mission on Sustainable Habitat; (iv) National Water Mission; (v) National Mission for Sustaining the Himalayan Ecosystem; (vi) National Mission for a Green India; (vii) National Mission for Sustainable Agriculture; and (viii) National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change. The Prime Minister’s Council on Climate Change approved all national missions, which are in various stages of implementation. The government also established the “Executive Committee on Climate Change” to oversee the execution of eight national missions under the NAPCC. The NAPCC also outlines several ongoing initiatives, including power generation, renewable energy, and energy efficiency. The Department of Science & Technology, under the Ministry of Science and Technology, is responsible for coordinating two out of eight national missions on climate change: the National Mission for Sustaining Himalayan Ecosystem (NMSHE) and the National Mission on Strategic Knowledge for Climate Change (NMSKCC).
State Action Plan on Climate Change In August 2009, state governments were tasked with creating their own State Action Plan on Climate Change (SAPCC) in line with the NAPCC. The SAPCC incorporate both adaptation and mitigation strategies to mitigate the effects of climate change. As of February 2023, thirty-four states and union territories (UTs) have prepared, and some have updated their SAPCC in line with the NAPCC taking into account the state-specific issues relating to climate change.
Climate Change Action Programme The Twelfth Five-Year Plan approved the approval of a new central-sector scheme, called Climate Change Action Programme (CCAP). The objective of the scheme is to build and support capacity at the central and the state levels for assessing climate change impacts and formulating and implementing adequate response measures. Several science initiatives have been taken by the environment ministry as part of the CCAP, including the National Carbonaceous Aerosols Programme (NCAP), Long-Term Ecological Observatories (LTEO), and Coordinated Studies on Climate Change for North East Region (CSCCNER).
Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment The Indian Network for Climate Change Assessment (INCCA) was established on October 14, 2009, to enhance the understanding of the impacts of climate change at both national and subnational levels. The INCCA conducts scientific research to examine the drivers and effects of climate change, to prepare climate change assessments once every two years, and to improve capacity for the managing-related risks and opportunities.
Clean Development Mechanism The Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) is a key component of the Kyoto Protocol, as outlined in Article 12 of the protocol. As of 2022, India stands second with 1,685 registered projects under the CDM after China (3764). Regarding Certified Emission Reduction (CER) credits, a total of 2,169 million CERs were issued till March 31, 2022, out of which only China accrued more than 50 per cent, India stands second with 12.7 per cent, followed by Korea and Brazil with 8.6 per cent and 8 per cent, respectively.
National Clean Energy Fund India established the National Clean Energy Fund (NCEF) in 2010 for the purpose of financing and promoting clean energy initiatives and funding research in the areas of clean energy in the country.
Auto Fuel Vision and Policy 2025 In December 2012, the Indian government formed an expert committee to draft the Auto Fuel Vision and Policy—2025 to recommend a roadmap for improving auto fuel quality in India till 2025. In January 2014, the Indian government set average fuel consumption standards for cars. The first phase of the fuel consumption standards was effective from 2017–22 to 2021–22, and a second set of standards are being implemented from April 2022. According to the norms, the average weight of all the manufacturers is considered to be 1,037 kg in the first phase, and the average fuel consumption should be less than 5.49 litres/100 km. In the second set of standards, the car average weight is considered to be 1,082 kg and the average fuel consumption should be less than or equal to 4.77 litres/100 km. By 2025, it is anticipated that these standards will result in a reduction of 22.97 million tonnes of fuel consumption.
Parliamentary Forum on Global Warming and Climate Change The forum was constituted in 2008 and since then has been involving parliamentarians to interact and engage with specialists focusing on global warming and climate change. Presentations on various subjects relating to climate change like agriculture, population, resources, biodiversity, technology, the National Solar Mission, sustainable habitat, renewable energy, climate science, and learning from the UK’s Climate Change Act highlighted the NAPCC, National Mission on Sustainable Habitat, and new challenges and priorities in renewable energy.
Supreme Court judgment The Supreme Court has broadened the scope of Article 14 (right to equality) and Article 21 (right to life) to encompass the fundamental right against the adverse effects of climate change in a recent judgment uploaded in April 2024. The right to a clean environment has earlier been recognised as a fundamental right within the ambit of the right to life by the court in a plethora of decisions. The apex court ruled in a case involving M.K. Ranjitsinh & Ors. versus Union of India & Ors. regarding the protection of the great Indian bustard and lesser florican, two critically endangered bird species on the IUCN Red List. The court attributed the decline of vulnerable species to pollution, climate change, predators, and invasive species, as well as overhead transmission lines. In its earlier order in 2021, the court imposed restrictions on overhead transmission line, set-up and appointed a committee to assess laying of underground high-voltage line on a case-by-case basis. Low-voltage powerlines were directed to be laid underground in the “priority” and “potential” habitats of the endangered species. This makes it a landmark judgment wherein climate change is centred, and the need to take actions to avert the worst of the crisis is brought within the legal parlance.
Challenges
In addition to various initiatives, strategies, and measures that countries and international organisations have employed to address, combat, and neutralise the adverse effects of climate change, there are some challenges that one faces while implementing these strategies.
Ambition gaps Many countries’ NDCs are not ambitious enough to meet the 1.5 °C target, leading to a significant gap between current pledges and the required emission reductions.
Implementation and enforcement Ensuring that countries adhere to their commitments and effectively implement their plans is challenging, particularly without stringent enforcement mechanisms. As a result, some countries struggled to meet their targets, and the overall impact on global emissions was limited.
Economic impact Balancing climate goals with economic growth, particularly in regions heavily dependent on fossil fuels, presents significant challenges. For example, transitioning from a coal-dependent economy, such as China to a low-carbon one poses significant economic challenges, including potential job losses in traditional energy sectors. China’s role in global supply chains means that its climate policies can have wide-reaching impacts, complicating international trade and cooperation.
Political consensus Political consensus on international level is a very complex issue. For instance, the exclusion of major emitters such as the US from the Kyoto protocol reduced its effectiveness. Similarly, achieving consensus among the EU member states on climate policies can be difficult, given their diverse economic interests and energy needs.
Development vs environment Balancing rapid economic development and poverty alleviation with environmental sustainability is a major challenge for developing countries like India. Developing the necessary infrastructure for renewable energy and securing adequate funding for climate initiatives further worsen the situation and demand additional investment. The intermittent nature of renewable energy sources like solar and wind requires advanced storage solutions and grid management to ensure reliable power supply.
Why Limiting Global Warming to 1.5 °C is Critical
Scientists have long warned of catastrophic environmental consequences if global temperatures continue to rise. The IPCC reports that the Earth’s average temperature has already increased by approximately 1.1 °C above preindustrial levels. Projections indicate that we could reach or exceed 1.5 °C of warming within the next two decades, even with immediate and drastic emissions reductions. A rise to 1.5 °C is expected to result in severe impacts, including:
Increased heat waves More regions will experience extreme heat, with about 14 per cent of the global population facing severe heat at least once every five years.
Droughts and floods Agricultural productivity will decline, leading to food shortages due to increased susceptibility to droughts and floods.
Rising sea levels Coastal communities, particularly small island nations, will face significant threats, with tens of millions at risk of displacement.
Ocean changes Up to 90 per cent of coral reefs could be lost, and oceans will become more acidic, severely affecting marine biodiversity and fisheries.
Thawing Arctic ice The Arctic could experience summers without sea ice at least once per century, with 40 per cent of permafrost expected to thaw by century’s end.
Species extinction Many species will face heightened extinction risks, disrupting ecosystems and impacting human livelihoods.
The consequences will be even more dire if the temperature rises beyond 2 °C. Immediate action is critical to mitigate these risks, as emphasised by experts like Alice C. Hill, who warns that we are “headed toward disaster” if warming is not controlled.
Other Measures to Address the Adverse Effects of Climate Change
Technological innovation
Renewable energy technologies The development and deployment of renewable energy technologies, such as solar, wind, hydro, and geothermal, are critical to reducing GHG emissions. Advances in technology have led to significant cost reductions, making renewable energy more competitive with fossil fuels. Innovations in energy storage, smart grids, and distributed generation are further enhancing the integration of renewables into the energy system.
Carbon capture and storage technologies Carbon capture and storage (CCS) technologies capture CO2 emissions from industrial processes and power plants and store them underground to prevent their release into the atmosphere. While CCS is still in the early stages of deployment, it holds promise for reducing emissions from hard-to-abate sectors like cement, steel, and chemical production.
Electric vehicles The transition to electric vehicles (EVs) is a key strategy for reducing emissions from the transportation sector. Advances in battery technology, coupled with government incentives and investments in charging infrastructure, have accelerated the adoption of EVs. Major automakers are increasingly committing to phasing out internal combustion engines in favour of electric models.
Financial mechanisms
Climate bonds and green finance The issuance of climate bonds and the growth of green finance are helping to mobilise private sector investment in climate-friendly projects. Climate bonds are used to finance projects that have positive environmental benefits, such as renewable energy, energy efficiency, and sustainable infrastructure. Green finance initiatives aim to align financial flows with climate goals, encouraging investments that support the transition to a low-carbon economy.
Adaptation and resilience building
Climate adaptation strategies In addition to mitigation efforts, adaptation strategies are essential for addressing the impacts of climate change. Adaptation involves adjusting practices, processes, and infrastructure to minimise the damage caused by climate-related events. Examples include building resilient infrastructure, implementing sustainable water management practices, and developing early warning systems for extreme weather events.
Nature-based solutions These solutions leverage natural processes to address climate challenges. These include reforestation, afforestation, wetland restoration, and sustainable land management practices. Nature-based solutions provide multiple benefits, such as enhancing biodiversity, improving water quality, and sequestering carbon, while also increasing resilience to climate impacts.
Public awareness and advocacy
Global climate movements Public awareness and advocacy play a crucial role in driving climate action. Global climate movements, such as Fridays for Future led by Greta Thunberg, have mobilised millions of people worldwide to demand stronger climate policies and actions from governments and corporations. These movements have raised awareness about the urgency of the climate crisis and the need for immediate action.
Education and capacity building Education and capacity building are essential for empowering individuals and communities to take climate action. Integrating climate education into school curricula, providing training for professionals in climate-related fields, and supporting community-based initiatives can enhance understanding and foster sustainable practices.
Conclusion
Addressing, combating, and neutralising the adverse effects of climate change requires a multifaceted and coordinated global effort. International agreements like the Paris Agreement, national policies, technological innovations, financial mechanisms, adaptation strategies, and public advocacy—all play critical roles in this endeavour. While significant progress has been made, much more needs to be done to meet climate goals and ensure a sustainable future for all. Continued collaboration, innovation, and commitment are essential to overcoming the challenges posed by climate change and achieving a resilient and low-carbon world.
Way forward Given the above situation, the following points should be considered:
Aggressive emission reductions To meet climate targets, we must achieve a 7.6 per cent annual reduction in GHG emissions from now until 2030. This requires immediate action, as any delay will increase the difficulty and costs of achieving necessary reductions.
Deep cuts in methane emissions Reducing methane emissions is vital for limiting short-term warming. The IPCC states that over 75 per cent of methane emissions can be mitigated with existing technologies, with up to 40 per cent achievable at no net cost as per International Energy Agency. Implementing these measures can provide immediate benefits in curbing global warming to 1.5 °C or 2 °C.
Investing in nature-based solutions Conserving and restoring natural ecosystems can contribute to one-third of the mitigation efforts needed in the next decade. Investments in these solutions can yield significant economic benefits, generating approximately US$ 4 trillion in revenue and creating over 100 million jobs annually by 2030.
Green recovery initiatives Governments should seize the opportunity presented by the recovery from the COVID-19 pandemic to implement green policies that could reduce emissions by 25 per cent by 2030. This includes investments in renewable energy, sustainable infrastructure, and green technologies.
Strengthening the Paris Agreement commitments Countries must enhance their NDCs to align with the Paris Agreement’s goals. This involves regularly reassessing and updating commitments, transitioning from voluntary pledges to legally binding agreements, and pursuing sector-specific agreements to drive emissions reductions.
Fostering global cooperation Climate change is a global challenge that requires collaborative efforts such as G20 Summit. Countries should work together to share technology, finance, and expertise, particularly to support developing nations in their climate mitigation and adaptation efforts.
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