The United States of America (USA) or simply the United States (US) is among the largest countries of the world. The US has a huge territory which extends beyond the borders of the neighbouring states. The 50 states, nine uninhabited territories, five self-governing territories, one incorporated territory, and one federal district of Washington DC constitute the real geographical map of the US.
In a historic move, the US has officially expanded its geographical territory by approximately one million square kilometres—an area nearly 60 per cent the size of Alaska. The catalyst for this territorial expansion lies in the establishment of the US Extended Continental Shelf (US ECS) limits. As the US announced its ECS boundaries, a significant chapter unfolded in its territorial expansion, particularly in the Arctic region. Encompassing areas such as the Arctic, the Atlantic east coast, the Bering Sea, the Pacific west coast, the Mariana Islands, and sections of the Gulf of Mexico, the ECS regions collectively spanned to an impressive size, approximately double that of California. This announcement held profound implications, including potential economic opportunities, environmental stewardship responsibilities, and shifts in geopolitical dynamics, especially concerning US territorial rights and interests in the Arctic.
Understanding the Territorial Expansion
In 2003, a significant collaborative effort commenced to ascertain the outer limits of the US ECS. Spearheaded by the US State Department, the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA), and the US Geological Survey (USGS), this mission aimed to gather comprehensive geological data. The primary objective was to define and establish the United States’ sovereign rights over its ECS. This exhaustive endeavour, comprising 40 missions at sea, culminated on December 19, 2023. It was on this date that the State Department disclosed the new geographic coordinates that demarcate the US’s ECS. The conclusion marked a significant milestone in the pursuit of clarifying US territorial rights.
The mission was led by the US Department of State (DOS) through the US ECS Task Force, which includes 14 government agencies. This initiative reflects the culmination of meticulous efforts and extensive data collection. The collaborative surveys conducted during this process unveiled hidden seamounts and provided invaluable insights into the depth and characteristics of the seabed and subsoil. The NOAA and the USGS played important role in spearheading the data collection and analysis efforts. Their contributions mark this initiative as the largest offshore mapping endeavour in the US history, showcasing a commitment to precision and thoroughness in delineating the nation’s ECS.
The extended continental shelf (ECS) refers to the portion of the seabed beyond the standard 200 nautical mile limit over which a coastal state has sovereign rights, according to the United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea (UNCLOS). This sovereign right entails the authority to explore and exploit natural resources such as oil, gas, minerals, and biological resources found on or beneath the seabed. The concept of ECS is necessary to understand the territorial expansion.
UNCLOS, often referred to as the law of the sea treaty, stands as a comprehensive framework that governs the world’s oceans and seas. Established through the collective effort of more than 160 countries, UNCLOS outlines the legal guidelines for marine natural resources management, environmental protection, and the maritime rights of nations. It provides a framework for determining the outer limits of the continental shelf. It has profoundly influenced international maritime law, facilitating the peaceful use of seas and oceans, promoting equitable utilisation of resources, and protecting the marine environment. UNCLOS serves as the cornerstone for the legal definition and governance of the ECS. Under this framework, coastal states can claim an ECS up to 350 nautical miles from their baseline or 100 nautical miles from the 2,500-metre isobath, which is an imaginary line connecting all paints of a depth of 2,500 metres.
If a coastal state’s continental shelf naturally extends beyond the 200 nautical miles limit, the state is required to make a submission to the Commission on the Limits of the Continental Shelf (CLCS) as per Article 76 of UNCLOS. This submission includes precise coordinates delineating the outer limits of the shelf, along with supporting technical and scientific data.
The CLCS then evaluates the submission, assessing both the data and the proposed limits. Based on this evaluation, the CLCS makes recommendations to the coastal state regarding the outer limits of its continental shelf. These recommendations are crucial as they establish the final and binding outer limits of the continental shelf for that coastal state.
The significance of the US announcement regarding the expansion of ECS boundaries reverberates not only in the realm of territorial rights but also in economic interests, as the ECS territories are rich in oil, natural gas, minerals, and marine life. By aligning with international laws, notably the 1982 UNCLOS, the US asserts its sovereign rights over these resources, reflecting a strategic engagement with the law of the sea and advancing its interests in the Arctic and beyond.
While the ECS expansion presents myriad opportunities for economic development and scientific exploration, it also engenders challenges, including potential disputes over overlapping claims, technical constraints, and environmental concerns. Navigating these complexities requires sustained international cooperation and adherence to established legal frameworks.
Historical Instances of Boundary Shifts of the USA
Representatives from the US and the British met in Paris, in 1783, to formally conclude the American Revolutionary War and finalise the boundaries of the new republic. The ‘United States’ title was granted by the Treaty of Paris to an incredibly large area of land. The US spanned from the thinly populated Atlantic Coast in the east to the Mississippi river in the west, and from the Great Lakes in the north to the vicinity of the Gulf of Mexico in the south. However, the US was not the only country on the continent; portions of the area west of the Mississippi river and south to the Gulf of Mexico were also claimed or were held by Britain, Spain, France, Mexico, and Russia.
The boundaries drawn by the US in Paris were not set in stone for very long. Through land purchases, treaties and battles, the US took possession of more than two million square miles of neighbouring territory over a period of the next seventy years after 1783, expanding the territories to the Pacific Ocean.
Louisiana Purchase
French General, Napoleon Bonaparte, had a huge impact on Europe and the course of history in the New World as well. An expensive war was being waged by Napoleon in Europe. He was under the impression that the Louisiana Territory was a burden to him, yet would be a possible source of wealth. In 1803, Napoleon and American president, Thomas Jefferson, entered into a treaty and paid France US$ 15 million for the Louisiana Territory—530,000,000 acres (around 8,28,000 sq. km) the land west of Mississippi river, which doubled the size of the then US. This massive land purchase, which stretches from New Orleans to Montana and North Dakota, accounts for around 25 per cent of the present-day territory of the US. Jefferson then sent his men to explore a route to the Pacific Ocean which they did in 1806. They explored the new territory and chronicled the settlement of the frontier, landscapes extolling US’s geographic wonders from Niagara Falls to the Grand Canyon drive and documented its westward expansion.
The Adams-Onis Treaty
Spanish explorers had arrived in Florida by 1565. However, 250 years later, Spain could not do much to solidify its position in the region. Spain realised that they would not be able to defend Florida if the US decides to seize it. After years of negotiations, Florida was finally admitted to the US with the signing of a purchase treaty. The Adams-Onis Treaty between the US and Spain was negotiated by Secretary of State, John Quincy Adams and the Spanish Minister to the US, Don Luis de Onis, and was signed in February 1819. According to the treaty, the US government agreed to assume approximately US$ five million of claims by US citizens against Spain. Also, in return for Florida and the Gulf Coast lands east of the Mississippi river, the US renounced all claims to Texas in the west.
Manifest Destiny
By 1820, through the Louisiana Purchase of 1803 and treaties with Spain and Britain, the US’s borders moved west to the Rocky Mountains, north to the 49th parallel, and south to Florida and the Gulf of Mexico. Before the US took possession of huge territories in the Southwest and along the Pacific Coast in the 1840s, these borders remained largely unaltered. The 1840s saw a complex convergence of political, social, and economic forces which propelled American expansionist sentiments. Many Americans subscribed to the concept of ‘Manifest Destiny’, the belief that Providence preordained the US to occupy as much land on the continent as possible. Some regarded the enormous tracts of arable land and excellent ports along the Pacific Coast as rich business potential. Some imagined the excitement of colonising unexplored regions, while others believed that the US should quickly spread throughout the continent before other countries could follow suit.
Texas Annexation
Soon after the Adams-Onis Treaty was signed, the Mexican War of Independence ended Spanish rule on the continent. This compelled Spain to relinquish all rights to Texas. Throughout the 1820s and 1830s, the newly formed independent Mexican Republic turned down every American attempt to purchase Texas. On the condition that American settlers become Catholic, learn to speak Spanish, and become citizens of Mexico, it agreed to give the US huge tracts of cheap land. In response, more than three hundred slaveholding American families settled in Texas during the 1820s. Initially, the deal was smooth, but later on tensions arose between the Mexican government and the region’s Anglo and Mexican settlers over many issues. The strained relationship between the Texans and the Mexican government turned violent in 1835 with the Texan Revolt. The Texans, led by Sam Houston, won a decisive victory at San Jacinto in 1836.
General Antonio Lopez de Santa Anna, the leader of the Mexican army, signed treaties that granted Texas independence and defined the Rio Grande as its southwest boundary after the battle. Despite the dismay, the US chose not to break the balance by recognising Texas as a sovereign nation. The admission of a slave-holding Texas threatened the delicate balance of slave and free state representation in the Senate, which had been meticulously maintained since 1820. While the majority of the Texans and many Americans, supported the annexation of Texas in 1836, Texas’s nine and a half years of independence from Mexico were marked by simmering tensions between the two countries. The US then peacefully acquired the Republic of Texas in 1845. Hence, they acquired 3,89,000 square miles of the former Mexican land.
Surrender of Mexico
Immediately after the Texas annexation, intense tension started between Mexico and the US. The US declared war on Mexico in 1846 over the boundary dispute. The Mexican-American War ended in 1848 after the Treaty of Guadalupe-Hidalgo was signed. According to the treaty, Texas was recognised as a US state. The US paid a sum of US$ 15 million to Mexico in the arrangement; however, Mexico had to sell half of its territory to the US. The US took control of a major portion of land including the present-day states of California, Nevada, Utah, New Mexico, Arizona, Colorado, Wyoming, Oklahoma, and Kansas.
Oregon Country
Oregon Country was the land north of California and west of the Rocky Mountains. Spain, Russia, Britain, and the US had been claiming the territory from the 16th century. Later, only the claims of America and British endured. In 1818, the two nations agreed to joint occupation of Oregon, where citizens of both the countries could settle. The American and British settlers in Oregon were two quite distinct populations. The British were mostly fur traders while the Americans were a more diverse group. Protestant missionaries first settled in the Wilamette Valley in the 1830s, marking the beginning of American colonisation. As the information about the fertile soil of the region spread quickly, a wave of thousands of American families migrated to Oregon Trail. This resulted in population gap and a general downturn in the fur trade, convincing the British government to seek a peaceful resolution to the Oregon issue.
Negotiations between the US and Britain over the Oregon Country started in 1845. The initial American proposal called for the boundary to be drawn at the 49th parallel, bisecting Vancouver Island. When British negotiators rejected this proposal, the then President of the US, James Knox Polk, announced the American intent to terminate the joint occupancy agreement. British leaders did not want an adverse conflict and did not want to put in danger their important economic relationship with the US. Hence, in June 1846, the Senate immediately approved the Oregon Treaty with Britain, setting the boundary at the 49th parallel.
Alaska Purchase
The Crimean War (1853–1856) was fought mainly on the Crimean Peninsula between Russia and the forces of Britain, France, and the Ottoman Empire; later joined by the army of Sardinia-Piedmont. The Russian demands to defend the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman sultan led to the Crimean War. A disagreement over the rights of the Roman Catholic and Russian Orthodox churches in Palestine between France and Russia was another factor. Russian Emperor Alexander II needed to overcome Russia’s backwardness. He began exploring the possibility of selling Alaska as he understood that the US might try to encroach on their land, which Russia was ill-prepared to defend against. On March 1867, after negotiation, Alaska was sold to the US for US$ 7.2 million. In 1959, Alaska officially became a state.
Maritime Expansion across Pacific
During the 19th century, the US expanded westwards, establishing a stronger presence in the Pacific Ocean and influencing its foreign policy. The US’s interest in the Pacific region was initially driven by the potential profits from the China trade. In 1784, the Empress of China became the first US ship to sail to China, attracting US merchants seeking opportunities. During the early 19th century, US merchants accumulated sizeable wealth and invested it in the development of their country.
The US government established formal diplomatic ties with China after China-Britain War. The US moved to negotiate its own treaty with the Chinese government leading to the Treaty of Wangxia, in 1844. This agreement allowed US ministers and consuls to reside in China’s capital and port cities. The US expansion into the Pacific region was driven by the China trade, necessitating a network of ports across the region to maintain its presence. The US opened relations with Japan in large part to enhance its status in China.
The US merchants visited Pacific Islands to replenish supplies and trade with Chinese merchants. The US appointed consuls in Fiji in 1844, Samoa in 1856, and Marshall Islands in 1881. It annexed Hawaii in 1898 to support interests in China and maintain a substantial presence.
The Spanish-American War, sparked by the US maritime expansion in the Pacific, led to the acquisition of the Philippines from Spain in 1898, fuelled by rising US interest in overseas empires. After its victory over Spain, the US established a temporary military administration in the Philippines, eventually establishing full colonial rule in 1900 during the Philippine-American War.
The expansion of the US across the Pacific significantly impacted its global position. The US became a recognised world power with significant commercial, political, and military interests. This led to the proclamation of an Open Door policy for China.
The 20th and 21st Century Territorial Acquisition
During the 20th and 21st century, too, there have been acquisitions of territories by the US; however, they have not made a major impact on the map of the US.
The US acquired the US Virgin Islands from Denmark in 1917. Following World War II, the UN entrusted several islands to the US, including the Marshall Islands, federated states of Micronesia, and Palau although Northern Mariana Islands became a US territory. The Panama Canal Zone was acquired in 1904, and returned to Panama in 1979. The final cession of formal control over the region was made to Panama in 1999.
Most of the states have retained their original boundaries once established. There have been exceptions, with only three states—Kentucky, Maine, and West Virginia—being directly formed from land previously belonging to another state. Additionally, four states—Louisiana, Missouri, Nevada, and Pennsylvania—have significantly expanded their territories by acquiring additional federal land after their initial admission to the Union.
Arizona, established in 1912, was the last state in the contiguous United States, known as the ‘lower 48’. Hawaii was the 50th and most recent state, admitted in 1959.
The unveiling of the US’ extended continental shelf heralds a new chapter in the nation’s territorial history, underscoring its evolving role in the global maritime landscape. Anchored in scientific rigour and legal legitimacy, this expansion not only enhances the nation’s resource potential but also reinforces its commitment to upholding international norms and fostering regional stability. As the United States charts its course in these uncharted waters, the stewardship of its extended maritime territories emerges as a critical imperative, embodying the delicate balance between economic progress and environmental preservation.
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